Multiple myeloma- Cancer of Bone

 

NANO CORROSION

The process of corrosion however is a complex electro chemical reaction and it takes many forms. Corrosion may produce general attach over a large metal surface or it may result in pinpoint penetration of metal. Corrosion is a relevant problem caused by water in boilers. Corrosion can be of widely varying origin and nature due to the action of dissolved oxygen, to corrosion currents set up as a result of heterogeneities on metal surfaces, or to the iron being directly attacked by the water.

While basic corrosion in boilers may be primarily due to reaction of the metal with oxygen, other factors such as stresses, acid conditions, and specific chemical corrodents may have an important influence and produce different forms of attack. It is necessary to consider the quantity of the various harmful substances that can be allowed in the boiler water without risk of damage to the boiler. Corrosion may occur in the feed-water system as a result of low pH water and the presence of dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide. Starting form these figures and allowing the amount that can be blown down, the permitted concentration in the make-up water is thus defined. Corrosion is caused principally by complex oxide-slag with low melting points. High temperature corrosion can proceed only if the corroding deposit is in the liquid phase and the liquid is in direct contact with the metal. Deposits also promote the transport of oxygen to the metal surface. Corrosion in the boiler proper generally occurs when the boiler water alkalinity is low or when the metal is exposed to oxygen bearing water either during operation or idle periods.

High temperatures and stresses in the boiler metal tend to accelerate the corrosive mechanisms. In the steam and condensate system corrosion is generally the result of contamination with carbon dioxide and oxygen. Specific contaminants such as ammonia or sulphur bearing gases may increase attack on copper alloys in the system.

METALS

Cracking in boiler metal may occur by two different mechanisms. In the first mechanism, cyclic stresses are created by rapid heating and cooling and are concentrated at points where corrosion has roughened or pitted the metal surface. This is usually associated with improper corrosion prevention. The second type of corrosion fatigue cracking occurs in boilers with properly treated water. In these cases corrosion fatigue is probably a misnomer. These cracks often originate where a dense protective oxide film covers the metal surfaces and cracking occurs from the action of applied cyclic stresses. Corrosion fatigue cracks are usually thick, blunt and cross the metal grains. They usually start at internal tube surfaces and are most often circumferential on the tube.

Corrosion control techniques vary according to the type of corrosion encountered. Major methods include maintenance of the proper pH, control of oxygen, control of deposits, and reduction of stresses trough design and operational practices. Deaeration and recently the use of membrane contractors are the best and most diffused ways to avoid corrosion removing the dissolved gasses (mainly O₂ and CO₂).

g bles or froth actually build up on the surface of the boiler water and pass out with the steam. This is called foaming and it is caused by high concentration of any solids in the boiler water. It is generally believed, however, that specific substances such as alkalis, oils, fats, greases, certain types of organic matter and suspended solids are particularly conducive to foaming. In theory suspended solids collect in the surface film surrounding a steam bubble and make it tougher. The steam bubble therefore resists breaking and builds up foam. It is believed that the finer the suspended particles the greater their collection in the bubble.

Priming is the carryover of varying amounts of droplets of water in the steam (foam and mist), which lowers the energy efficiency of the steam and leads to the deposit of salt crystals on the super heaters and in the turbines. Priming may be caused by improper construction of boiler, excessive ratings, or sudden fluctuations in steam demand. Priming is sometimes aggravated by impurities in the boiler-water. Some mechanical entertainment of minute drops of boiler water in the steam always occurs. When this boiler water carryover is excessive, steam-carried solids produce turbine blade deposits. The accumulations have a composition similar to that of the dissolved solids in the boiler water. Priming is common cause of high levels of boiler water carryover. These conditions often lead to super heater tube failures as well. Priming is related to the viscosity of the water and its tendency to foam. These properties are governed by alkalinity, the presence of certain organic substances and by total salinity or TDS. The degree of priming also depends on the design of the boiler and its steaming rate. The most common measure to prevent foaming and priming is to maintain the concentration of solids i in the boiler water at reasonably low levels. Avoiding high water levels, excessive boiler loads, and sudden load changes also helps. Very often contaminated condensate returned to the boiler system causes carry- over problems. In these cases the condensate should be temporarily wasted until the source of contamination is found and eliminated. The use of chemical anti-foaming and anti-priming agents, mixtures of surface-active agents that modify the surface tension of a liquid, remove foam and prevent the carry-over of fine water particles in the stream, can be very effective in preventing carry- over due to high concentrations of impurities in the boiler-water.

NANO ENERGY METERS

Sourcing fresh water from streams, rivers, lakes and underground aquifers and adhering to strict water conservation measures are much more viable for both economic and environmental reasons in most situations, although some desert regions with thirsty and growing populations may not have many such options. The relationship between desalinization and climate change is complex. Global warming has increased droughts around the world and turned formerly verdant landscapes into near deserts. Some long held fresh water sources are simply no longer reliably available to hundreds of millions of people around the world.

Meanwhile, expanding populations in desert areas are putting intense pressure on existing fresh water supplies, forcing communities to turn to desalinization as the most expedient way to satisfy their collective thirst. But the process of desalinization burns up many more fossil fuels than sourcing the equivalent amount of fresh water from fresh water bodies. As such, the very proliferation of desalinization plants around the world, some 13,000 already supply fresh water in 120 nations, primarily in the Middle East, North Africa and Caribbean, is both a reaction to and one of many contributors to global warming.

Beyond the links to climate problems, marine biologists warn that widespread desalinization could take a heavy toll on ocean biodiversity; as such facilities' intake pipes essentially vacuum up and inadvertently kill millions of plankton, fish eggs, fish larvae and other microbial organisms that constitute the base layer of the marine food chain. And, according to Jeffrey Graham of the Scripps Institute of Oceanography's Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine, the salty sludge leftover after desalinization for every gallon of freshwater produced, another gallon of doubly concentrated salt water must be disposed of can wreak havoc on marine ecosystems if dumped willy-nilly offshore. For some desalinization operations, says Graham, it is thought that the disappearance of some organisms from discharge areas may be related to the salty outflow.

SOURCES

The world's water consumption rate is doubling every 20 years, outpacing by two times the rate of population growth. It is projected that by the year 2025 water demand will exceed supply by 56%, due to persistent regional droughts, shifting of the population to urban coastal cities, and water needed for industrial growth. The supply of fresh water is on the decrease. Water demand for food, industry and people is on the rise. Lack of fresh water reduces economic development and lowers living standards. 

NANO WATER INDUSTRY

A lot of the water today is transported via public supply. Public supply covers the water that is transported by water departments whether government owned, or private. These departments withdraw water from lakes, rivers, and reservoirs to wherever it needs to be, for domestic or industrial use, or any other use necessary.

NANO IN WATER INDUSTRY 

Around thirteen per cent of fresh water is affected by public supply: The first of these is domestic use: This covers water that is used in

the home for private reasons, such as showering, toilets, cooking, washing and cleaning, and, when it happens, drinking. This can be either obtained from public supply or can be self supplied.

The second use is commercial use: This is water for motels, hotels, restaurants, office buildings, and other commercial facilities, and institutions. This can also include fountain displays.

The third use for water and one of the most common is industrial use: This includes water used in fabrication, processing, washing and cooling, and also can cover steel, chemical and allied products, paper and allied products, mining, and petroleum refining. This covers around five per cent of all water used. Industrial water use can sometimes use saline water, but 89% of the time its the same fresh water that we drink in our homes.

• The fourth use is irrigation: This is the when land is watered. This can cover the growing of crops, pastures, and maintaining vegetative growth in recreational lands, such as parks and golf courses.

The fifth use is thermoelectric power: This is basically electrical power generation that it is not hydroelectric. Water is merely used in the process of creating this electricity.

• The sixth use is mining: This is not a huge use of water, however, often water is used to create a slurry something which allows the gold to be separated from the dirt.

• The seventh use is livestock: Livestock need water, and lots of it. One per cent of all fresh water used is used for livestock. • The eighth use is hydroelectric power: This is power that is produced through falling water. The great thing about this however, is that the water does not have to be fresh. It does have to fall from a great hight at a high speed though. A great example of this is the snowy mountain scheme.

INDUSTRY

The annual water volume used by industry is estimated to rise from 752 km 3/year in 1995 to an estimated 1,170 km 3/year in 2025. In 2025, the industrial component is expected to represent about 24% of total freshwater withdrawal. Some 300-500 million tons of heavy metals, solvents, toxic sludge, and other wastes accumulate each year from industry. Industries based on organic raw materials are the most significant contributors to the organic pollutant load with the food sector being the most important polluter.

ENERGY 

World energy demand, especially for electricity, will increase greatly during this 21st century. Hydropower is the most important and widely-used renewable source of energy it represents 19% of total electricity production. Worldwide there are now about 45,000 large dams in operation. Canada is the largest producer of hydroelectricity, followed by the United States and Brazil. Built to provide hydropower and irrigation water and to regulate river flow to prevent floods and draughts, they have had a disproportionate impact on the environment. Collectively, they have inundated more than 400,000 square kilometers of mostly productive land. Somewhere between 40 and 80 million people have been displaced by dams, forced to relocate to other, often less productive, land. A study by the World Commission on Dams, published in 2000, found that large dams have a very mixed record.

In 140 countries, dams provide cheap hydroelectric power. On a global scale, dams account for 19 per cent of the world's electricity generation and supply, through irrigation, almost 16 per cent of the world's food. Some continue to operate after 30-40 years, providing water and electricity. Hydropower plays a major role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions: developing of the world's economically feasible hydropower potential could reduce greenhouse gases emissions by about 13%.

On the other hand large dams have led to the loss of forests and wildlife habitat and the loss of aquatic biodiversity - both upstream and downstream. Large dams have, in most cases, systematically failed to assess and account for the range of potential negative impacts on displaced and resettled communities. With up to 80 million people displaced from their homes and many more living downstream suffering from unintended effects (eg. Loss of fisheries), mitigation efforts have, for the most part, been cosmetic and ineffective. According to the Commission, large dans may be on their way out: Mini-hydropower plants have proved to be far cheaper to build and more economical to run than originally forecast: plus they have minimal impacts on the environment. Better management to reduce the demand for water has great potential to reduce water stress and hydropower requirements.

Improved systems management, particularly for irrigated agriculture, has tremendous potential for reducing waste, while increasing the efficiency of irrigation systems. Demand for Water Increasing While freshwater supply is limited, demand risen as populations grow and consumption per capita increases. Global consumption of water is doubling every 20 years, more than twice the rate of human population growth, while pollution and over-extraction in many regions of the world has reduced the ability of supplies to meet demand.

During the last 70 years, the global population has tripled, but water withdrawals have increased over six times. Since 1940, annual global water withdrawals have increased by an average of nearly 3 per cent per year, while population growth has averaged between 1.5 and 2 per cent. According to the United Nations, more than one billion people on earth already lack access to fresh drink water. If current trends persists, by 2025 the demand for freshwater is expected to rise to 56 per cent more than the amount that is currently available.

More people mean increased water use and less available on a per capita basis. In 1989 there was some 9,000 cubic meters of freshwater per person available for human use. By 2000, that figures had dropped to 7,800 cubic meters and is expected to plummet to 5,100 cubic meters per person by 2025, when the global population is projected to reach 8 billion.

The world's six billion people are already using about 54 per cent of all the accessible freshwater contained in rivers, lakes and underground aquifers. By 2025 the human's share will be 70 per cent, based on the population increase. If per capita consumption of water resources continues to rise at its current rate, humankind could be using over 90 per cent of all available freshwater within 25 years.

 WATER SHORTAGES

A country experiences water stress when annual supplies drop below 1,700 cubic meters per person. When annual water supplies drop below 1,000 cubic meters per person, the country faces water scarcity for all or part of the year. In 1995, 31 countries containing 458 million people faced either water stress or scarcity.

By 2025, according to projections made by Population Action International, more than 2.8 billion people in 48 countries will be facing water stress or scarcity.

By 2050, the number of water short countries soars to 54, affecting 4 billion people, or 40 per cent of the projected global population

NANO CYCLE 

In the water-use cycle, water moves from a source to a point of use, and then to a point of disposition. The sources of water are either surface water or groundwater. Water is withdrawn and moved from a source to a point of use, such as an industry, restaurant, home, or farm. After water is used, it must be disposed of (or sometimes, reused). Used water is either directly returned to the environment or passes through a treatment processing plant before being returned.

The Geological Survey compiles nationwide water-use data every 5 years. Even though discussions of water use typically focus on fresh-water use, saline water use also is important in countries. Some categories of water use, such as thermoelectric, industrial, and mining, use saline water, mainly for cooling generators in thermoelectric power plants. Industries and mines use saline water to cool machinery and to wash and transport products, mainly for cooling of machinery.

After continual increases in the nation's total water withdrawals (fresh water and saline water) for the years reported from 1950 to 1980, withdrawals declined from 1980 to 1985 and remained fairly constant from 1985 to 1995. The 1995 estimate of total withdrawals (402,000 MGD) is about 2 per cent less than the 1990 estimate and nearly 10 per cent less than the peak year of 1980. Likewise, total fresh-water withdrawals for 1995 were about 8 per cent less than in 1980.

The decline in withdrawals is especially significant in light of the fact that population posted an increase of 16 per cent during the same period. Clearly as a nation, the countries are using its surface water and groundwater resources more efficiently. This decline signals that water use responds to economic and regulatory factors, and that the general public has an enhanced awareness of water resources and conservation issues. 

NANO SOFTENING

HARDNESS

Carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid which at ordinary environmental pH exists mostly as bicarbonate ion. Microscopic marine organisms take this up as carbonate to form calcite skeletons which, over millions of years, have built up extensive limestone deposits. Groundwater, made slightly acidic by CO₂ (both that absorbed from the air and from the respiration of soil bacteria) dissolve the limestone, thereby acquiring calcium and bicarbonate ions and becoming "hard".

These "hardness ions" cause two major kinds of problems. First, the metal captions react with soaps, causing them to form an unsightly precipitate-the familiar "bathtub ring". More seriously, the calcium and magnesium carbonates tend to precipitate out as adherent solids on the surfaces of pipes and especially on the hot heat exchanger surfaces of boilers. The resulting scale buildup can impede water flow in pipes. In boilers, the deposits act as thermal insulation that impedes the flow of heat into the water; this not only reduces heating efficiency, but allows the metal to overheat, which in pressurized systems can lead to catastrophic failure.

TEMPORARY HARDNESS

Most conventional water-softening devices depend on a process known as ion-exchange in which "hardness" ions trade places with sodium and chloride ions that are loosely bound to an ion-exchange resin or a zeolite (many zeolite minerals occur in nature, but specialized ones are often made artificially.) In a similar way, positively-charged zeolites bind negatively-charged chloride ions

(C), which get displaced by bicarbonate ions in the water. As the zeolites become converted to their Ca2+ and HCO3- forms they gradually lose their effectiveness and must be regenerated. This is accomplished by passing a concentrated brine solution though them, causing the above reaction to be reversed. Herein lies one of the drawbacks of this process: most of the salt employed in the regeneration process gets flushed out of the system and is usually released into the soil or drainage system something that can have damaging consequences to the environment, especially in arid regions. For this reason, many jurisdictions prohibit such release, and require users to dispose of the spent brine at an approved site or to use a commercial service company.

The great economic importance of water softening has created a large and thriving industry that utilizes a number of proven methods based on well established scientific principles. It has also unfortunately attracted a variety of operators offering technologies that are purported to be better, less expensive, easier to install, or "chemical-free", but which have never been validated scientifically and whose principles of operation are largely unexplained by the known laws of chemistry.

This does not mean that such schemes cannot work (after all, we can use theory to show that under idealized conditions, water can never boil and it can never rain!), but it should inspire a good degree of skepticism. Most of the statements supporting alternative water treatment methods come from those who have a commercial interest in these devices, they are not supported by credible and independently verifiable performance data, and the explanations they offer for how they work reveal such a weak understanding of basic chemistry on the part of their authors that it is difficult to have much confidence in them.

NANO DEVICE AND METHOD

The invention is concerned with a water softening device for application in automatic washing machines, more particularly, a water softening device based on capacitive deionization in a flow-through capacitor for obtaining water that is suitable for use with detergent products having low environmental impact.

In recent years one has become increasingly aware of the impact of human activities on the environment and the negative consequences this may have.

Ways to reduce, reuse and recycle resources are becoming more important. Fabric cleaning is one of the many household activities with a significant environmental impact. This is partly caused by the use of conventional detergent products, which tend to be relatively complex compositions with a variety of ingredients. Over the years some ingredients have been banned by legislation in certain countries because of their adverse environmental effects. Examples include certain nonionic surfactants and builders such as phosphates. The use of phosphates in detergents has been linked to increased levels of phosphates in surface waters. The resulting eutrophication is thought to cause an increased growth of algae. The increased algae growth in stagnant surface water leads to oxygen depletion in lower water layers, which in turn causes general reduction of overall water quality.

Although some ingredients in conventional laundry  products may have a limited environmental effect, the energy involved in the production thereof influences the environmental impact during their life cycle negatively. Life cycle analysis typically estimates the environmental impact of a product during the different phases such as production of raw material, production of the product itself, distribution to the end user, use of the product by for example the consumer and the disposal after use. Environmental impact may include factors like eutrophication, green house effect, acidification and photo-chemical oxidant formation. With respect to laundry detergent products, extra ingredients necessarily add cost, volume and weight to the product, which in turn requires more packaging material and transport costs. Extra ingredients usually require a more complex production process. However, it is difficult to reduce the number and/or amount of the ingredients without reducing the cleaning efficiency. One of the most bulky ingredients of common laundry detergents are so-called builders like for example zeolites, phosphates, soaps and carbonates. Builders are added to laundry detergent formulations for their ability to sequester hardness-ions like Ca²+ and Mg2+. The reduction of hardness ions is required in order to prevent the deposition of calcium soaps in the soil, to prevent the precipitation of anionic surfactants, to maximise colloid stability and to reduce the calcium-soil-substrate-interaction and soil-soil interaction and hence to improve soil removal.

Apart from their positive effects, common builders also may have negative effects on laundry cleaning processes. Builders often generate insoluble materials in the wash either as such or by formation of precipitates. For example, zeolites are insoluble and may cause incrustation of fabrics and precipitates of calcium-builder-complex result in higher redepositioning.