Krinjal Jariya

  ASTRONOMY  Astronomy is defined as the study of the objects that lie beyond our planet Earth and the processes by which these objects interact with one another. We will see, though, that it is much more. It is also humanity's attempt to organize what we learn into a clear history of the universe, from the instant of its birth in the Big Bang to the present moment. In considering the history of the universe, we will see again and again that the cosmos evolves; it changes in profound ways over long periods of time. For example, the universe made the carbon, the calcium, and the oxygen necessary to construct something as interesting and complicated as you. Today, many billions of years later, the universe has evolved into a more hospitable place for life. Tracing the evolutionary processes that continue to shape the universe is one of the most important (and satisfying) parts of modern astronomy. The ultimate judge in science is always what nature itself reveals based on observation

 EXPLORING THE MOLECULAR WORLD In the twenty-first century, even more than in the twentieth, it's easy to make things work without understanding them, but to a newcomer much of the technology seems like magic, which is dissatisfying. After a few days, you want to understand what nanotechnology is, on a gut level. Back in the late twentieth century, most teaching used dry words and simple pictures, but now- for a topic like this-it's easier to explore a simulated world. And so you decide to explore a simulation of the molecular world. Looking through the brochure, you read many tedious facts about the simulation: how accurate it is in describing sizes, forces, motions, and the like; how similar it is to working tools used by both engineering students and professionals; how you can buy one for your very own home, and so forth. It explains how you can tour the human body, see state-of-the-art nanotechnology in action, climb a bacterium, etc. For starters, you decide to take an int

  NANOMACHINES At your feet is a ribbed, ringed cylindrical object about the size of a soup can-not a messy, loosely folded strand like the protein (before it fell apart), but a solid piece of modern nanotechnology. In the gear, everything is held in place by bonds as strong as those that strung together the beads of the protein chain. It can't unfold, and you'd have to cheat again to break its perfect symmetry. Like those in the wall of the nanocomputer, its solidly attached atom vibrate only slightly. There's another gear nearby, so you fit them together and make the atomic teeth mesh, with bumps on one fitting into hollows on the other. They stick together, and the soft, slick atomic surfaces let them roll smoothly. Underfoot is the nanocomputer itself, a huge mechanism built in the same rigid style. Climbing down from it, you can see through the transparent layers of the wall to watch the inner works. An electric motor an arm-span wide spins inside, turning a crank that

  Genetic Analysis Since the publication of DNA's double helical structure by Watson and Crick, electrophoresis has been a standard among the analytical tools used in modern biochemistry. CE's automation and quantitation capabilities made it a natural successor to replace the slab-gel format for genetic analysis. By introducing replaceable physical gels (polymers in solution) into a capillary, a molecular sieve is created that readily resolves molecules of DNA and RNA by size. The automation capability of this format has enabled significant advances in genetic analysis, accelerating the discovery of new genomic information.  The Beckman Coulter CEQ 8000 and 8800 are fully automated genetic analysis systems that employ an array of coated capillaries, novel infrared dyes, an optimized linear polyacrylamide gel (LPA) and comprehensive informatics to fully automate the processes of DNA sequencing and genotyping. Plate bar coding and linkage to Beckman Coulter's Biomek liquid ha

 Interest of the Computer Industry The attraction of molecular manufacturing for the computer industry should be clear. It should let us make computers at a manufacturing cost of less than a dollar per pound, operating at frequencies of tens of gigahertz or more, with linear dimensions for a single device of roughly 10 nanometers, high reliability, and energy dissipation (using conventional methods) of roughly 10^-18 joules per logic operation. If we make thermodynamically reversible computers (which the author and others have recently shown can be made from conventional electronic devices, e.g., CMOS) then the energy dissipation per logic operation can be reduced to well below kT at T = 300 Kelvins (well below 10^-21 joules). The computer industry is spending billions of dollars to make better computers. It is widely acknowledged within the industry that lithography is approaching its limits. Articles like The Future of the Transistor, Miniaturization of Electronics and its Limits and

 LIQUID  CHROMATOGRAPHY Liquid chromatography has been used in an extremely wide range of analytical methods and it is impossible to give a comprehensive set of examples that would illustrate its wide applicability. The following are a few LC analyses that may indicate the scope of the technique and give the reader some idea of its importance and versatility. An example of the use of reversed phase chromatography (employing a C8 column) for the separation of some benzodiazepines. The column used was 25 cm long, 4.6 mm in diameter packed with silica based, C8 reverse phase packing particle size 5 m. The mobile phase consisted of 26.5% v/v of methanol, 16.5% v/v acetonitrile and 57.05v/v of 0.1M ammonium acetate adjusted to a pH of 6.0 with glacial acetic acid and the flow-rate was 2 ml/min. The column efficiency available at the optimum velocity would be about 15,000 theoretical plates. The retention time of the last peak is about 12 minutes (ie., a retention volume of 24 ml). At a flow

 ION  CHROMATOGRAPHY Ion Chromatography can be used in a number of novel ways and employing the appropriate conditions can even be used to separate mixtures where the components are not ionic or do not normally produce interactive ions in aqueous solution. An example of this type of separation is the analysis of saccharide mixtures using ion exchange interactions. An illustration of such a separation is given. The saccharine are reacted with a borate with which saccharides readily forms complex anions. The procedure for making the complex is simply and is achieve by merely including a borate buffer in the mobile phase.  The column packing was a strong anion exchange resin designated as TSKgel Sugar AXG. It had a particle diameter of 10 m and contained quaternary ammonium ions as the ion exchange moiety. The column was 15 cm long, 4.6 mm in diameter and had a potential efficiency of about 7,500 theoretical plates. The mobile phase consisted of three borate buffer solutions which were us